The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
Colonial Forest Policy Controversy | RC Set | Verbal CAT 2025 Slot 3
In 1982, a raging controversy broke out over a forest act drafted by the Government of India. This act sought to strengthen the already extensive powers enjoyed by the forest bureaucracy in controlling the extraction, disposal and sale of forest produce. It also gave forest officials greater powers to strictly regulate the entry of any person into reserved forest areas. While forest officials justified the act on the grounds that it was necessary to stop the continuing deforestation, it was bitterly opposed by representatives of grassroots organisations, who argued that it was a major violation of the rights of peasants and tribals living in and around forest areas. . . .
The debate over the draft forest act fuelled a larger controversy over the orientation of state forest policy. It was pointed out, for example, that the draft act was closely modelled on its predecessor, the Forest Act of 1878. The earlier Act rested on a usurpation of rights of ownership by the colonial state which had little precedent in precolonial history. It was further argued that the system of forestry introduced by the British—and continued, with little modification, after 1947—emphasised revenue generation and commercial exploitation, while its policing orientation excluded villagers who had the most longstanding claim on forest resources. Critics called for a complete overhaul of forest administration, pressing the government to formulate policy and legislation more appropriate to present needs. . . .
That debate is not over yet. The draft act was shelved, though it has not as yet been formally withdrawn. Meanwhile, the 1878 Act (as modified by an amendment in 1927) continues to be in operation. In response to its critics, the government has made some important changes in forest policy, e.g., no longer treating forests as a source of revenue, and stopping ecologically hazardous practices such as the clearfelling of natural forests. At the same time, it has shown little inclination to meet the major demand of the critics of forest policy—namely, abandoning the principle of state monopoly over forest land by handing over areas of degraded forests to individuals and communities for afforestation.
. . . [The] 1878 Forest Act itself was passed only after a bitter and prolonged debate within the colonial bureaucracy, in which protagonists put forward arguments strikingly similar to those being advanced today. As is well known, the Indian Forest Department owes its origin to the requirements of railway companies. The early years of the expansion of the railway network, c. 1853 onwards, led to tremendous deforestation in peninsular India owing to the railway’s requirements of fuelwood and construction timber. Huge quantities of durable timbers were also needed for use as sleepers across the newly laid tracks. Inexperienced in forestry, the British called in German experts to commence systematic forest management. The Indian Forest Department was started in 1864, with Dietrich Brandis, formerly a Lecturer at Bonn, as the first Inspector General of Forests. The new department needed legislative backing to function effectively, and in the following year, 1865, the first forest act was passed. . . .
All of the following, if true, would weaken the narrative presented in the passage EXCEPT that: Hard
1. before British rule, peasants and tribal groups were denied access to forest resources by Indian rulers and their administrations.
2. certain tribal groups in India are responsible for climate change because their sustenance has historically depended on mass scale deforestation.
3. the timber requirement for railway works in nineteenth century India was met through import from China, in exchange for spices.
4. nineteenth century German forestry experts were infamous for violating the rights of indigenous communities that lived in forest regions.
Answer & Explanation
Correct Answer: Option 4
Explanation: The passage argues that colonial forest policy was unprecedented, exclusionary, and exploitative. Option 4, which says German forestry experts violated indigenous rights, supports this narrative by reinforcing the oppressive nature of the system introduced.
Why other options wrong: Option 1 weakens the claim of “little precedent” by suggesting precolonial rulers also denied access. Option 2 shifts blame for deforestation onto tribal groups, weakening the critique of state policy. Option 3 contradicts the claim that railway expansion caused deforestation in India.
According to the passage, which one of the following reforms is yet to happen in India’s forest policies? Easy to Moderate
1. A ban on deforestation.
2. Involving local people in cultivating forests.
3. Recognising the significance of forests to ecology.
4. Recognising the state’s claim to forest land use.
Answer & Explanation
Correct Answer: Option 2
Explanation: The passage states that although ecological concerns are now recognised, the government has not handed degraded forests to individuals or communities. Involving local people in cultivating forests is therefore the reform yet to happen.
Why other options wrong: Stopping hazardous practices and recognising ecological importance have already occurred. State monopoly over forest land continues and is not a reform that is pending.
According to the passage, which one of the following is not common to the 1878 Forest Act and the 1982 draft forest act? Moderate
1. Both sought to establish the state’s monopoly over forest resources.
2. Both resulted in large scale deforestation.
3. Both sparked controversy and debate among the various stakeholders.
4. Both reflect a colonial mindset.
Answer & Explanation
Correct Answer: Option 2
Explanation: The 1878 Act followed large-scale deforestation linked to railway expansion, whereas the 1982 draft act was justified as a measure to stop deforestation and was never implemented. Hence, deforestation is not common to both.
Why other options wrong: Both acts centralised state control, generated controversy, and reflected a colonial mindset, making those features common to both.
Which one of the following best encapsulates the reason for the “raging controversy” developing into a “larger controversy”? Moderate
1. The 1982 draft forest act further enabled the commercial exploitation of forest resources by the forest bureaucracy.
2. The 1982 draft forest act violated the rights of tribals and peasants who lived in and around forest areas.
3. The 1982 draft forest act replicated colonial measures of control and regulation of forest resources.
4. The 1982 draft forest act was unjustifiably defended by forest officials in the face of bitter opposition by grassroots organisations.
Answer & Explanation
Correct Answer: Option 3
Explanation: The controversy widened when critics pointed out that the 1982 draft act was modelled on the 1878 colonial law. This shifted the debate from one law to the broader orientation of forest policy.
Why other options wrong: Rights violations explain the initial controversy, not the expansion of the debate. Claims about commercial exploitation or opposition intensity do not capture why the issue became a larger policy critique.
